Examining the methods and mechanisms of recruiting mercenaries or volunteers for combat in international conflicts presents a complex subject requiring a profound understanding of the techniques employed by states to attract such individuals.

Nations utilise diverse strategies to enlist mercenaries, and even with the information revealed about these processes, fully comprehending their intricacies remains a significant challenge due to the clandestine nature of such operations and the surrounding legal and political complexities. Many states and armed groups rely on informal networks and intermediaries to recruit individuals, rendering these processes difficult to trace or expose. This opacity exacerbates the problem and hinders the international community from taking effective measures to curb the recruitment of mercenaries and volunteers in armed conflicts. The scarcity of comprehensive sources on the subject at hand adds to the complexity. The recent video showing a group of Yemeni individuals coerced or deceived into fighting in Ukraine highlights how the conflict increasingly draws foreign fighters amidst rising casualties and the Kremlin's attempts to avert full-scale mobilisation. It underscores the transformation of what was initially intended to be a swift and decisive war—or, as the Kremlin officially describes it, a "special military operation"—into a protracted and gruelling war.

Russia's significant losses in human resources and economic resources have compelled it to seek various means to reduce the cost of its war in Ukraine and mitigate its domestic repercussions, even at the expense of its international reputation. Among these measures is the recruitment of mercenaries, or as Moscow euphemistically refers to them, "volunteers."

The recruitment processes and conditions for citizens of various countries, including the enlistment of hundreds of Yemenis to fight in Ukraine, shed light on the plight of numerous Yemeni youth who unexpectedly find themselves on the frontlines of the war in Ukraine. These individuals endure exceptionally harsh circumstances, highlighting how Yemen's dire economic conditions are being exploited to lure many with false promises. For instance, recruits are often enticed with promises of high-paying jobs and opportunities to obtain Russian citizenship. However, upon their arrival in Russia, they are swiftly deployed to the frontlines in eastern Ukraine.

The significance of this issue lies in its profound impact on the humanitarian and security conditions in Yemen and its influence on regional dynamics. The methods and tactics employed to recruit Yemenis for the war in Ukraine reflect the complexities of the ongoing conflict, underscoring the challenges nations face in addressing armed disputes, the exploitation of individuals in wars, and the blatant disregard for international law. The Financial Times reported that Russia has lured hundreds of Yemenis to fight against Ukraine through a company affiliated with the Houthi rebel group. Yemeni "recruits," told the newspaper that they had been promised well-paying jobs and Russian citizenship. However, they were forcibly conscripted into the military upon arriving in Russia and sent to the frontlines. (1) The contracts signed by the Yemeni recruits pointed to Al-Jabri General Trading and Investment Company, owned by General Abdul Wali Al-Jabri, an individual closely associated with the Houthi leadership. According to the company’s registry, its headquarters is in Oman, and it was established on October 4, 2022, with a capital of 20,000 Omani rials, equivalent to approximately 52,000 U.S. dollars. (2) several Russian networks have also been actively recruiting Yemeni youth.

To understand Moscow's strategy for compensating for its shortage in human resources, it is essential to trace the growing rhetoric of the Russian leadership aimed at recruiting what Moscow refers to as "volunteers." On March 11, 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin endorsed sending volunteers to Ukraine. In a meeting of Russia’s National Security Council, he stated, "If there are individuals who wish to come voluntarily—not for money—and provide assistance to the people living in Donbas, we should meet them halfway and help them reach the combat zone." (3) Further emphasising this approach, on January 4, 2024, President Putin signed a decree granting Russian citizenship to foreign nationals who sign one-year contracts with the Russian military or the Ministry of Defence. This move aimed to attract more recruits from outside Russia to join the ranks of the Russian army or affiliated military formations.

Moscow’s strategies for recruiting mercenaries to fight in Ukraine can be traced through various approaches, including:

Collaboration with Private Military Companies (PMCs):

Prominent among these is the Wagner Group, a key PMC working on behalf of Russia. Such entities are pivotal in recruiting, training, and deploying mercenaries to conflict zones. (4)

Exploitation of Economic Hardships:

Economic difficulties in regions like Yemen and other Middle Eastern countries are leveraged to attract young recruits. These individuals are often lured with false promises of lucrative jobs and opportunities for Russian citizenship.

Collaboration with Armed Groups:

Moscow’s alliances extend to armed groups such as the Houthis in Yemen, through which fighters are recruited and sent to Ukrainian battlefronts.

Propaganda and Media Campaigns:

Media outlets and propaganda efforts frame fighting as a pathway to financial gains and improved living conditions. These narratives often appeal to adventurers, the desperate, or ideologically driven individuals. Known colloquially as "cannon fodder," such recruits undergo minimal training and are hastily deployed into combat, often with dire consequences.

Online Recruitment:

Social media platforms and online job portals are instrumental in the digital recruitment of mercenaries. Attractive advertisements and job postings are strategically placed to entice young individuals into joining.

Migration as a Recruitment Tool:

Before the Ukraine war, thousands of migrants from the Middle East were funnelled through the Belarus-Poland and Russia-Finland borders en route to the European Union. Observers note that these migration waves were part of President Putin’s pressure tactics against the West, amplifying public dissatisfaction with governments over immigration policies. This migration would not have been possible without Russian facilitation, such as expedited visa processes managed by companies affiliated with the Federal Security Service (FSB). Post-Ukraine war, human smuggling routes to Europe have shifted to include recruitment for the Russian Ministry of Defence and affiliated PMCs. Migrants travelling with the intent of relocation are often presented with a single option: join the Russian armed forces. This offer is frequently accompanied by the promise of expedited citizenship. (5)

Interwoven Incentives and Motives

First: Incentives and Motives of Russian Private Security Companies

Russian private security companies have numerous motivations for recruiting mercenaries and volunteers from Middle Eastern countries, including Yemen. These motivations can be summarised as follows:

Capitalising on Economic Hardships:

Yemen’s severe economic crisis creates fertile ground for recruitment. The economic vulnerability of Yemeni youth makes them highly susceptible to exploitation and manipulation.

Low-Cost Recruitment:

Recruiting mercenaries from economically distressed regions like Yemen is significantly less expensive than enlisting Russian citizens. This approach helps Moscow avoid domestic backlash over casualties among its nationals. Offering meagre sums of money to impoverished individuals in exchange for facing the perils of war in Ukraine appears to be a strategically profitable move for Russia.

Advancing Geopolitical Goals:

Private security companies serve as parallel entities to governmental and military institutions. This dual structure allows them to achieve geopolitical and military objectives without subjecting the state to legal accountability for violations committed by these companies.

Second: Moscow’s Incentives and Motives

Moscow has repeatedly cautioned foreign nationals contemplating joining the Ukrainian military against doing so, urging them to “think seven times” before enlisting. The Russian government emphasised that captured foreign fighters would not be treated as prisoners of war, referencing the International Convention Against the Recruitment, Use, Financing, and Training of Mercenaries adopted in December 1989. However, Moscow simultaneously granted its military apparatus the green light to recruit Middle Eastern youth, including Yemenis, to bolster its forces against Ukraine. Former Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu revealed that over 16,000 volunteers had expressed readiness to join what he described as a "liberation operation" against the Nazi regime in Donbas, eastern Ukraine. According to Shoigu (6), these volunteers had previously fought alongside Russian forces against terrorists in Syria for several years. However, subsequent reports indicate that the actual number of Syrian recruits fighting for Russia significantly exceeds the figure disclosed by the former defence minister. Furthermore, the years of war following Shoigu’s statement have highlighted Russia's extensive recruitment of mercenaries from various countries through diverse means. Yemen, in this context, has been no exception.

Russia's recruitment of Yemeni fighters for its operations in Ukraine reflects a calculated strategy driven by several interconnected motives, which can be summarised as follows:

Reducing Domestic Pressure:

By recruiting foreign fighters, Russia diminishes its reliance on conscripting its citizens. This approach helps mitigate domestic tensions and public criticism.

Combat Expertise:

Moscow perceives the inclusion of Middle Eastern fighters, especially those with darker skin tones, as a symbolic provocation to what it describes as "Ukrainian Nazis." Furthermore, Russia values the combat experience of individuals from conflict-ridden regions of the Middle East, recognising their familiarity with war conditions.

Supplementing Human Resources:

Leveraging Yemen's dire economic circumstances, Russia taps into an additional pool of human resources. This enables it to replenish its ranks and address workforce shortages in the ongoing war in Ukraine.

Strengthening Military Forces:

Recruiting foreign combatants allows Russia to bolster its forces in Ukraine without resorting to a full-scale mobilisation of its citizens. This approach reduces internal unrest.

Avoiding the Recall of Wagner Fighters from Africa:

By sourcing mercenaries from various countries, Russia avoids the need to redeploy fighters from the Wagner Group currently stationed in Africa. Such a redeployment could jeopardise Russia's control over several African nations and threaten lucrative financial flows from mining operations on the continent, which are critical to Russia's economy.

Preventing Youth Migration:

The strategy increases Russia’s workforce on the Ukrainian front while avoiding another wave of mass mobilisation. In 2022, such a mobilisation triggered an exodus of hundreds of thousands of Russian men fleeing abroad.

Third: Motives and Incentives of the Houthis

Strengthening Ties with Russia:

Several reports indicate that the Houthis play a significant role in recruiting Yemenis in coordination with international intermediaries. This collaboration is perceived as a pathway to deepening their relationship with Moscow, potentially securing critical political and military support. U.S. Special Envoy to Yemen, Tim Lenderking, noted his awareness of reports regarding recruiting fighters from Yemen, calling it "certainly concerning" but not surprising to the White House. He also emphasised that Russia actively maintains communication with the Houthis, offering assistance that includes geolocation data to facilitate missile strikes on ships in the Red Sea. Additionally, reports suggest discussions between Moscow and the Houthis concerning the sale of advanced weaponry, including anti-ship missiles.

Influencing Local and Regional Power Dynamics:

The Houthis recognise that their cooperation with Russia could recalibrate the Middle East's local and regional balance of power. Strengthened ties with Moscow could bolster their influence in Yemen and enhance their deterrence capabilities against neighbouring states.

Boosting Morale Among Their Fighters:

The Houthis have faced escalating strikes by the United States, the United Kingdom, and Israel, targeting their maritime operations in the Red Sea. These attacks have caused significant concern among their forces, undermining their confidence. Houthi leaders view their alignment with Russia as a means of fortifying their resilience against these aerial and naval strikes. Such collaboration not only enhances their operational capabilities but also serves as a morale booster for their fighters, who are increasingly vulnerable to external attacks.

Fourth: Motives and Incentives of Youth

Youth, particularly in Yemen, represent the primary target group for recruitment efforts. States and organisations deploy extensive resources to promote and facilitate transporting these individuals to their final destinations. For Yemeni youth, the combination of dire economic conditions and daily survival struggles creates compelling incentives to accept any offers presented to them, which they perceive as an escape from their grim realities. The key drivers for young individuals can be summarised as follows:

Acquisition of Russian Citizenship:

Yemeni youth are enticed by the promise of Russian citizenship, which is portrayed as easy to obtain. This prospect is presented as a gateway to a fresh start for themselves and their families.

Escaping the Hell of Unemployment and Poverty:

Chronic unemployment and pervasive poverty push many young people to seek any opportunity to improve their living conditions.

Promises of Lucrative Employment Opportunities:

False promises of high-paying jobs with favourable working conditions are used as bait. However, upon arriving in Russia, these individuals are often coerced into joining the frontlines of the war in Ukraine. Additionally, some youth are lured with assurances of admission to private universities in Russia. Once they arrive, their passports are confiscated, leaving them with no option but to participate in the war alongside Russian armed forces. This method of exploitation has not been limited to Yemen. Similar schemes have targeted youth from other countries, such as India. According to India's Central Bureau of Investigation, a network of agents and brokers, including three individuals in Russia, was discovered to be recruiting Indian students under false pretences to fight in Ukraine. Indian media outlets have reported that Prime Minister Narendra Modi raised this issue during discussions with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow, urging the return of Indian nationals deceived into signing contracts with the Russian Ministry of Defence to fight in Ukraine. (7)

These combined factors contribute to the recruitment of Yemenis to fight in Ukraine, reflecting the complexities of the conflict and its profound impacts on individuals and communities. However, regardless of the initial motivations behind their participation—whether coerced or voluntary, whether fighting alongside Moscow or Kyiv—Middle Eastern mercenaries often find themselves grappling with profound disillusionment when confronted with the grim realities of the Russian-Ukrainian war. The harsh realities starkly contrast with the expectations, ideas, and hopes that initially drew them into the conflict zone. Moreover, the nature of the Russian-Ukrainian war, characterised by advanced military technologies and the deployment of cutting-edge defensive and offensive systems, starkly contrasts the patterns and dynamics of Middle Eastern warfare.

Repercussions

The recruitment of Yemeni youth to fight in Ukraine has profound repercussions for Yemen, manifesting in the following ways:

Aggravation of the Humanitarian Crisis: The enlistment of Yemeni youth in external conflicts exacerbates the suffering of Yemeni families already burdened by poverty and displacement due to the ongoing civil war.

Exposure to Death or Disability: Numerous reports highlight the fatalities and severe injuries sustained by dozens of Yemeni recruits on the frontlines of the Ukrainian conflict. Such outcomes devastate the individuals involved and ripple through their communities, leaving lasting scars.

Social Impact: The potential return of Yemeni fighters who survive the fierce battles in Ukraine poses significant social challenges. These individuals may face psychological trauma and reintegration issues, potentially leading to heightened social tensions and further destabilisation within Yemeni society.

What Measures Should Be Taken to Limit the Recruitment of Yemenis as Mercenaries in the Russian-Ukrainian War?

To curb the recruitment of Yemenis as mercenaries in the Russian-Ukrainian war, a multi-faceted approach involving political, legal, and humanitarian measures shall be adopted by relevant stakeholders. Below are the recommended actions for each party involved:

First: Yemen

The internationally recognised Yemeni government shall adopt robust measures to prevent the exploitation of its citizens, including:

1. Protection:

Implement effective measures to shield Yemeni citizens from exploitation and forced recruitment, such as enhancing surveillance over borders and airports. Ensure that Yemeni embassies, especially in Russia, fulfil their responsibilities to address this issue and other violations of citizens' rights. The embassy's role in protecting Yemenis has been criticised for negligence and inaction, necessitating urgent reform.

2. Awareness Campaigns:

Launch nationwide awareness campaigns to educate Yemeni youth about the dangers of forced recruitment, false promises, and the risks of falling prey to brokers and human trafficking networks.

3. International Cooperation:

Collaborate with the international community and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to support and assist affected citizens.

Second: Russia

Cease Mercenary Recruitment:

The Russian Federation should reconsider its reliance on recruiting mercenaries and seek alternative solutions to bolster its forces without exploiting individuals from other nations. It should also adhere to international laws prohibiting the use of mercenaries, including the United Nations International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing, and Training of Mercenaries.

Cooperate with Yemen:

Contribute to efforts aimed at improving Yemen's economic and political stability rather than taking advantage of its dire economic circumstances. Enhance transparency in recruitment processes. Collaborate with international organisations to prevent human rights violations and hold those responsible for exploiting vulnerable individuals accountable.

Third: The International Community

Impose Sanctions:

Enforce sanctions on entities involved in recruiting or facilitating mercenary operations, whether nations, private companies, or individuals.

Enhance Humanitarian Support:

Bolster humanitarian efforts in Yemen to alleviate the economic hardships that drive individuals toward mercenary recruitment.

Activate International Oversight:

Create international committees to oversee cross-border recruitment operations, closely monitor developments, and issue regular reports on the recruitment and exploitation of Yemenis in foreign conflicts.

Strengthen Legal Frameworks:

Work towards revising and enhancing international laws to impose stricter penalties on illicit recruitment practices and expand the scope of UN monitoring capabilities.

Foster Security Cooperation:

Facilitate information-sharing among nations to dismantle and prosecute transnational recruitment networks effectively.

In Conclusion

The recruitment of Yemenis as mercenaries to fight alongside Russia in Ukraine reflects the complexities of modern conflicts and their profound effects on individuals and communities. This practice represents a blatant violation of international laws that prohibit the illicit use of individuals in armed conflicts. Such operations exacerbate humanitarian crises and intensify the suffering of those misled by false promises of employment and high salaries. Exploiting Yemen's dire economic conditions is not just unethical but also counterproductive to global stability. The Yemeni government must proactively protect its citizens from these risks. This includes launching awareness campaigns about the dangers of illegal recruitment, strengthening border and airport controls, and collaborating with international organisations to impose sanctions on those facilitating these activities. Furthermore, this recruitment process highlights the strengthening ties between Russia and the Houthi group, which could significantly impact regional balances and stability. The international community, the Yemeni government, and Russia must take decisive and coordinated steps to address this issue, protect the rights of affected individuals, and facilitate the safe return of those deceived into participating. International collaboration, awareness, and humanitarian intervention can play a pivotal role in curbing this phenomenon and securing a brighter future for Yemen's youth.

[1]  Россия обманом завербовала сотни йеменских хуситов на войну в Украине, the Moscow times 24.11.2024https://goo.su/YMF0h

[2] نجم الدين قاسم، شباب يمنيون يقاتلون قسراًعلى الجبهة الأوكرانية، Darag media، 6 ديسمبر 2024م  https://goo.su/h39q

[3] Нужны ли арабские добровольцы России в Украине? ТRT на русском 8 апр. 2022, https://www.trtrussian.com/mnenie/nuzhny-li-arabskie-dobrovolcy-rossii-v-ukraine-8483225

[4]  مايكل يونغ، روسيا وتجنيد المرتزقة، مدوّنة "ديوان" الصادرة عن مركز مالكوم كير– كارنيغي للشرق الأوسط وبرنامج الشرق الأوسط في مؤسسة كارنيغي للسلام الدولي، 21 يناير 2022، https://goo.su/fmF3m

[5] Алексей Ремизов, Египетская сила. Как пермская компания вербует арабских наемников на войну, обещая паспорт и деньги, The Insider 27 September 2024, https://theins.ru/politika/274806?ysclid=m4rcmhoaaw455031343

[6] Почему Россия прибегла к помощи добровольцев для освобождения Украины, Репортёр 11.03.2022, https://goo.su/jfI7a7M

[7]  OCCRP: Йеменцев обманом принуждают подписывать контракты с Минобороны РФ и воевать за Россию в Украине, The Insider7 октября 2024, https://goo.su/ZHCynu